All academic misconduct behaviours are equal, but some are more equal than others: exploring educator perceptions of the impact of criminalising contract cheating on the academic misconduct landscape in the UK, through the lens of TPA
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47408/jldhe.vi36.1498Keywords:
academic misconduct, contract cheating, higher education, theory of practice architecturesAbstract
Using thematic analysis and the Theory of Practice Architectures (TPA), this study assessed educator perceptions of the 2022 criminalisation of providing or advertising contract cheating (CC) services in the United Kingdom (UK). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten participants from ten different UK-based Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), all of whom taught/were currently teaching at a HEI and had interacted with at least one academic misconduct case in the last five years. Educators were asked to share their own perceptions, in addition to those they believed their students held on the criminalisation of CC. Thematic analysis revealed four key themes: indifference, confusion, support and Generative-Artificial Intelligence (Gen-AI), which were then aligned to the arrangements of TPA to highlight how these themes may be influencing the practice of contract cheating. The study found that educators were indifferent towards CC criminalisation, and that many educators felt unsupported in the pursuit of academic misconduct cases. Respondents were more concerned about the rise of Gen-AI and its impact on future academic integrity.
References
Adeoye-Olatunde, O.A. and Olenik, N.L. (2021) ‘Research and scholarly methods: semi-structured interviews’, Journal of the American College of Clinical Pharmacy, 4(10), pp.1358-1367. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/jac5.1441
Adler, R.H. (2022) ‘Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research’, Journal of Human Lactation, 38(4), pp.598-602. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/08903344221116620
Ajit, S., Maikkara, A., and Ramku, W. (2024) ‘Fear of failure: a student-facing investigation into the motivations for contract cheating and academic misconduct’, International and Comparative Education, 11(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2413211
Awdry, R. (2021) ‘Assignment outsourcing: moving beyond contract cheating’, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 46(2), pp.220-235. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2020.1765311
Awdry, R. and Newton, P.M. (2019) ‘Staff views on commercial contract cheating in higher education: a survey study in Australia and the UK’, Higher Education, 78(4), pp.593-610. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00360-0
Barua, P.D., Vicnesh, J., Gururajan, R., Oh, S.L., Palmer, E., Azizan, M.M., Kadri, N.A., and Acharya, U.R. (2022) ‘Artificial intelligence enabled personalised assistive tools to enhance education of children with neurodevelopmental disorders - a review’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(3), 1192. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031192
Bretag, T., Harper, R., Burton, M., Ellis, C., Newton, P., Rozenberg, P., Saddiqui,S., and van Haeringen, K. (2019) ‘Contract cheating: a survey of Australian university students’, Studies in Higher Education, 44(11), pp.1837-1856. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1462788
Campbell, C. and Waddington, L. (2024) ‘Academic integrity strategies: student insights’, Journal of Academic Ethics, 22(1), pp.33-50. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-024-09510-1
Chaka, C. (2024) ‘Reviewing the performance of AI detection tools in differentiating between AI-generated and human-written texts: a literature and integrative hybrid review’, Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching, 7(1), pp.1-12. Available at: https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2024.7.1.14
Chang, L.P.L., Cerimagic, S., and Conejos, S. (2021) ‘Challenges of running online exams and preventing academic dishonesty during the Covid-19 pandemic’, Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education, 22. Available at: https://doi.org/10.47408/jldhe.vi22.830
Clarke, R. and Lancaster, T. (2006) Eliminating the successor to plagiarism? Identifying the usage of contract cheating sites. 2nd Plagiarism: Prevention, Practice and Policy Conference. Newcastle upon Tyne, Jisc Plagiarism Advisory Service. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228367576_Eliminating_the_successor_to_plagiarism_Identifying_the_usage_of_contract_cheating_sites (Accessed: 19 May 2025).
Crown Prosecution Service (2018) The Code for Crown Prosecutors. Available at: https://www.cps.gov.uk/publication/code-crown-prosecutors (Accessed: 28 March 2025).
Draper, M. (2022) 'Essay mills and contract cheating from a legal point of view', in S.E. Eaton, G.J. Curtis, B.M. Stoesz, J. Clare, K. Rundle, and J. Seeland (eds) Contract Cheating in Higher Education: Global Perspectives on Theory, Practice and Policy. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan Cham, pp.43-60. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12680-2
Draper, M.J., Ibezim, V., and Newton, P.M. (2017) ‘Are essay mills committing fraud? An analysis of their behaviours vs the 2006 Fraud Act (UK)’, International Journal for Educational Integrity, 13(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-017-0014-5
Draper, M., Lancaster, T., Dann, S., Crockett, R., and Glendinning, I. (2021) ‘Essay mills and other contract cheating services: to buy or not to buy and the consequences of students changing their minds’, International Journal for Educational Integrity, 17(13). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-021-00081-x
Dukhan, S. (2021) ‘Maintaining quality assessment practices under emergency remote online conditions’, Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education, 22. Available at: https://doi.org/10.47408/jldhe.vi22.788
Feuerriegel, S., Hartmann, J., Janiesch, C., and Zschech. (2024) ‘Generative AI’, Business and Information Systems Engineering, 66, pp.111-126. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12599-023-00834-7
Gaumann, N. and Veale, M. (2024) ‘AI providers as criminal essay mills? Large language models meet contract cheating law’, Information and Communications Technology Law, 33(3), pp.276-309. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2024.2352692
Groves, A. and Nagy, V. (2022) ‘Meaningful crime prevention or just an “Act”: discourse analysis of the criminalisation of contract cheating services in Australia’, Crime, Law and Social Change, 78, pp.295-319. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-022-10025-2
Harper, R., Bretag, T., Ellis, C., Newton, P., Rozenberg, P., Saddiqui, S., and van Haeringen, K. (2019) ‘Contract cheating: a survey of Australian university staff’, Studies in Higher Education, 44(11), pp.1857-1873. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1462788
Hassoulas, A., Powell, N., Roberts, L., Umla-Runge, K., Gray, L., and Coffey, M.J. (2023) ‘Investigating marker accuracy in differentiating between university scripts written by students and those produced using ChatGPT’, Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6(2), pp.71-77. Available at: https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2023.6.2.13
Kemmis, S., Wilkinson, J., Edwards-Groves, C., Hardy, I., Grootenboer, P., and Bristol, L. (2014) Changing Practices, Changing Education. Singapore: Springer.
Lancaster, T. (2020) ‘Academic discipline integration by contract cheating services and essay mills’, Journal of Academic Ethics, 18(2), pp.115-127. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-019-09357-x
Miles, P.J., Campbell, M., and Ruxton, G.D. (2022) ‘Why students cheat and how understanding this can help reduce the frequency of academic misconduct in higher education: a literature review’, Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education, 20(2), pp.A150-A160. Available at: https://www.funjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/june-20-150.pdf (Accessed: 8 May 2025).
Monteiro, J., Silva-Pereira, F., and Severo, M. (2018) ‘Investigating the existence of social networks in cheating behaviours in medical students’, BMC Medical Education, 18(193). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1299-7
Musselin, C. (2018) ‘New forms of competition in higher education’, Socio-Economic Review, 16(3), pp.657-683. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwy033
Newton, P.M. (2018) ‘How common is commercial contract cheating in higher education and is it increasing? A systematic review’, Frontiers in Education, 3. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00067
Perkins, M., Roe J., Postma, D., McGaughran, J., and Hickerson, D. (2024) ‘Detection of GPT-4 generated text in higher education: combining academic judgement and software to identify generative AI tool misuse’, Journal of Academic Ethics, 22(1), pp.89-113. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-023-09492-6
Perry, B. (2010) ‘Exploring academic misconduct: some insights into student behaviour’, Active Learning in Higher Education, 11(2), pp.97-108. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787410365657
Rahimi, R., Jones, J., and Bailey, C. (2024) ‘Exploring contract cheating in further education: student engagement and academic integrity challenges’, Ethics and Education, 19(1), pp.38-58. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/17449642.2023.2299193
Randstad (2022) Spotlight on Students: Mental Health and Well-being in Higher Education. Luton: Randstad.
Roe, J. (2023) ‘Discursive construction of contract cheating and degradation of higher education: comments on the Daily Mail online’, Social Worlds, Arenas, and Situation Analyses: Theoretical Debates and Practical Research Experiences, 24(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-24.2.4000
Rundle, K., Curtis, G.J., and Clare, J. (2019) ‘Why students do not engage in contract cheating’, Frontiers in Psychology, 10. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02229
Ruslin, R., Mashuri, S., Rasak, M.S.A., Alhabsyi, F., and Syam, H. (2022) ‘Semi-structured interview: a methodological reflection on the development of a qualitative research instrument in educational studies’, IOSR Journal of Research and Method in Education, 12(1), pp.22-29. Available at: https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jrme/papers/Vol-12%20Issue-1/Ser-5/E1201052229.pdf (Accessed: 8 May 2025).
Skills and Post-16 Education Act 2022, c. 21. Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2022/21/contents (Accessed: 6 April 2025).
Spruin, E. (2022) ‘Mitigating the risk of contract cheating in UK higher education: a multi-level solution’, Journal of Higher Education Policy and Leadership Studies, 3(1), pp.109-120. Available at: https://doi.org/10.52547/johepal.3.1.109
Srikanth, M. and Asmatulu, R. (2014) ‘Modern cheating techniques, their adverse effects on engineering education and prevention’, International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education, 42(2), pp.129-140. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7227/IJMEE.0005
Stone, A. (2023) ‘Student perceptions of academic integrity: a qualitative study of understanding, consequences and impact’, Journal of Academic Ethics, 21(3), pp.357-375. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-022-09461-5
Sutherland-Smith, W. and Dullaghan, K. (2019) ‘You don't always get what you pay for: user experiences of engaging with contract cheating sites’, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 44(8), pp.1148-1162. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2019.1576028
Sweeney, S. (2023) ‘Who wrote this? Essay mills and assessment - considerations regarding contract cheating and AI in higher education’, The International Journal of Management Education, 21(2), 100818. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100818
Walker, M. and Townley, C. (2012) ‘Contract cheating: a new challenge for academic honesty?’, Journal of Academic Ethics, 10(1), pp.27-44. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-012-9150-y
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).